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This Concept Map, created with IHMC CmapTools, has information related to: Smolinsky_HOA1, 1649 Hennig Brand, while distilling urine to find the Elixer of Life (probably because of its gold color), discovers a glowing white compound, which he names phosphorus. He keeps his discovery a secret, likely because he believed he had found the prized material and did not want to share. 1680 Boyle rediscovers phosphorus and publishes his results. This work caused most alchemists and scientists to question Aristotle's "elements" as the foundation of matter., prior to 1000 C.E. Evidence of the use of copper, gold, and silver can be seen in ancient Greek, Roman, Egyptian, and Oriental pottery and artwork thanks to their natural presence in elemental form Middle Ages Alchemy, the science that would eventually become modern chemistry, is defined by the search for the Philosopher's Stone. This material, also known as the Elixer of Life, was believed to be able to convert lead into gold and possibly grant immortality., 1919 Irving Langmuir describes the octet theory of chemical bonding, which states that atoms want to fill their valence shell (outer layer) with eight electrons through bonds. 1943 Glenn Seaborg, while working on the Manhattan Project, had trouble isolating Americium and Curium (atomic numbers 95 and 96, respectively) and when assuming their chemical properties were similar to those of the d-block elements above them. He proposed that these elements, and others with similar atomic numbers, were part of an actinide series similar to the lanthanide series of rare earth metals that was previously known. Thus, the final modification to the traditional periodic table, the f-block, came about, leaving ample room for additional elements to be added such that their chemical properties can be easily predicted., Middle Ages Alchemy, the science that would eventually become modern chemistry, is defined by the search for the Philosopher's Stone. This material, also known as the Elixer of Life, was believed to be able to convert lead into gold and possibly grant immortality. 1661 Robert Boyle, an Irish Chemist, defines an element as a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical reaction., 1914 Henry Mosely found that it was possible to experimentally determine an element's atomic number, or the number of protons and electrons in the ground state of an atom of that element. He proposed reorganizing the table according to atomic number, which resulted in some specific clarifications to Mendeleev's work: (1) the atomic number is the same for all atoms of an element so there is not order effect due to the recently discovered isotopes; (2) some key changes between elements (e.g., argon and potassium) when ordering by atomic number instead of atomic weight showed better correlation with chemically similar elements; and (3) modification of experimental atomic weights (like for tellerium as Mendeleev suggested) is not necessary. Moseley's table also had some gaps for yet undiscovered elements. 1919 Irving Langmuir describes the octet theory of chemical bonding, which states that atoms want to fill their valence shell (outer layer) with eight electrons through bonds., 1939 The final naturally occurring element, Francium, was discovered by Marguerite Perey at the Curie Institute in Paris. 1943 Glenn Seaborg, while working on the Manhattan Project, had trouble isolating Americium and Curium (atomic numbers 95 and 96, respectively) and when assuming their chemical properties were similar to those of the d-block elements above them. He proposed that these elements, and others with similar atomic numbers, were part of an actinide series similar to the lanthanide series of rare earth metals that was previously known. Thus, the final modification to the traditional periodic table, the f-block, came about, leaving ample room for additional elements to be added such that their chemical properties can be easily predicted., 1817 Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner classifies the known elements into triads based on their properties. Examples of the triads include: chlorine, bromine, and iodine; calcium, strontium, and barium; sulfur, selenium, and tellurium; and lithium, sodium, and potassium. 1862 A French geologist, Alexandre-Emile Beguyer de Chancourtois notices that similar elements are aligned vertically if the elements are plotted around a cylinder with circumference of 16 units, equivalent to the mass of oxygen. The telluric helix (so named because tellurium was at the center of the cylinder) publication was not widely recognized, however, because it included ions and compounds as well as elements, was written using geological instead of chemical terms, and did not contain a detailed diagram., 1661 Robert Boyle, an Irish Chemist, defines an element as a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical reaction. 1789 Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier publishes Elementary Treatise of Chemistry (English translation by Robert Kerr), which describes the known elements. These were broken down into two groups, metals and non-metals, and included oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, phosphorus, mercury, zinc, sulfur, light, and caloric. While the manuscript was met with mixed reviews at the time, it is widely regarded as the first chemical textbook., Middle Ages Alchemy, the science that would eventually become modern chemistry, is defined by the search for the Philosopher's Stone. This material, also known as the Elixer of Life, was believed to be able to convert lead into gold and possibly grant immortality. 1649 Hennig Brand, while distilling urine to find the Elixer of Life (probably because of its gold color), discovers a glowing white compound, which he names phosphorus. He keeps his discovery a secret, likely because he believed he had found the prized material and did not want to share., 1919 Irving Langmuir describes the octet theory of chemical bonding, which states that atoms want to fill their valence shell (outer layer) with eight electrons through bonds. 1943 Glenn Seaborg, while working on the Manhattan Project, had trouble isolating Americium and Curium (atomic numbers 95 and 96, respectively) and when assuming their chemical properties were similar to those of the d-block elements above them. He proposed that these elements, and others with similar atomic numbers, were part of an actinide series similar to the lanthanide series of rare earth metals that was previously known. Thus, the final modification to the traditional periodic table, the f-block, came about, leaving ample room for additional elements to be added such that their chemical properties can be easily predicted., 1914 Henry Mosely found that it was possible to experimentally determine an element's atomic number, or the number of protons and electrons in the ground state of an atom of that element. He proposed reorganizing the table according to atomic number, which resulted in some specific clarifications to Mendeleev's work: (1) the atomic number is the same for all atoms of an element so there is not order effect due to the recently discovered isotopes; (2) some key changes between elements (e.g., argon and potassium) when ordering by atomic number instead of atomic weight showed better correlation with chemically similar elements; and (3) modification of experimental atomic weights (like for tellerium as Mendeleev suggested) is not necessary. Moseley's table also had some gaps for yet undiscovered elements. 1916 Gilbert Lewis describes the valence bond theory, which states that chemical bonds are formed by the sharing of two electrons between atoms. These electrons come from the outer, or valence, layer of electrons on each atom., 1974 E.G. Mazurs publishes Graphical Representations of the Periodic System During One Hundred Years, widely accepted as the definitive review of alternative representations of the table. These representations include one where the f- and theoretical g-blocks are all shown in line with the other elements, one where the elements are shown in a spiral galaxy-like structure that artists and other appreciate because it shows similarity to astronomical structures, and more. 2004 E.G. Marks and A.J. Marks publish a version of the periodic table in which they attempt to resolve some of the issues regarding elements like hydrogen, helium, and the lanthanides. Found Chem (2010) 12:85–93, 1869 The Russian Chemist Dmitri Mendeleev arranged the 63 known elements according to their atomic weights. His work was presented to the Russian Chemical Society and published in a renowned German journal with these claims: (1) when arranged by their atomic weights, the elements exhibit an an apparent periodicity; (2) elements with similar chemical properties either have similar atomic weights (e.g., iron, copper, nickel, cobalt) or increase by regular amounts (e.g., potassium, rubidium, cesium); (3) the arrangements of the groups of elements according to atomic weight corresponds to the compounds formed with hydrogen and oxygen; (4) the most prevalent elements have small atomic weights; (5) the magnitude of the atomic weight determines the character of the element; (6) there are [at the time] still undiscovered elements that fill holes in the table; (7) the atomic weight of an element can be adjusted if it is known to fit in a particular place in the table; and (8) the atomic weight of an element can be used to help predict the properties of that element. 1914 Henry Mosely found that it was possible to experimentally determine an element's atomic number, or the number of protons and electrons in the ground state of an atom of that element. He proposed reorganizing the table according to atomic number, which resulted in some specific clarifications to Mendeleev's work: (1) the atomic number is the same for all atoms of an element so there is not order effect due to the recently discovered isotopes; (2) some key changes between elements (e.g., argon and potassium) when ordering by atomic number instead of atomic weight showed better correlation with chemically similar elements; and (3) modification of experimental atomic weights (like for tellerium as Mendeleev suggested) is not necessary. Moseley's table also had some gaps for yet undiscovered elements., 1789 Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier publishes Elementary Treatise of Chemistry (English translation by Robert Kerr), which describes the known elements. These were broken down into two groups, metals and non-metals, and included oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, phosphorus, mercury, zinc, sulfur, light, and caloric. While the manuscript was met with mixed reviews at the time, it is widely regarded as the first chemical textbook. 1817 Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner classifies the known elements into triads based on their properties. Examples of the triads include: chlorine, bromine, and iodine; calcium, strontium, and barium; sulfur, selenium, and tellurium; and lithium, sodium, and potassium., 1817 Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner classifies the known elements into triads based on their properties. Examples of the triads include: chlorine, bromine, and iodine; calcium, strontium, and barium; sulfur, selenium, and tellurium; and lithium, sodium, and potassium. 1865 English chemist, John Newlands sorted the 56 currently known elements into 11 categories according to physical properties. Newlands recognized that many pairs of elements within each category had atomic masses that differed by a multiple of eight. He called this relationship the Law of Octaves likening it to the periodicity of musical scales. This proposal was not generally well-received by the scientific community, however, because of that similarity., 1914 Henry Mosely found that it was possible to experimentally determine an element's atomic number, or the number of protons and electrons in the ground state of an atom of that element. He proposed reorganizing the table according to atomic number, which resulted in some specific clarifications to Mendeleev's work: (1) the atomic number is the same for all atoms of an element so there is not order effect due to the recently discovered isotopes; (2) some key changes between elements (e.g., argon and potassium) when ordering by atomic number instead of atomic weight showed better correlation with chemically similar elements; and (3) modification of experimental atomic weights (like for tellerium as Mendeleev suggested) is not necessary. Moseley's table also had some gaps for yet undiscovered elements. 1939 The final naturally occurring element, Francium, was discovered by Marguerite Perey at the Curie Institute in Paris., 1661 Robert Boyle, an Irish Chemist, defines an element as a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical reaction. 1680 Boyle rediscovers phosphorus and publishes his results. This work caused most alchemists and scientists to question Aristotle's "elements" as the foundation of matter., 1916 Gilbert Lewis describes the valence bond theory, which states that chemical bonds are formed by the sharing of two electrons between atoms. These electrons come from the outer, or valence, layer of electrons on each atom. 1919 Irving Langmuir describes the octet theory of chemical bonding, which states that atoms want to fill their valence shell (outer layer) with eight electrons through bonds., 1939 The final naturally occurring element, Francium, was discovered by Marguerite Perey at the Curie Institute in Paris. 1943 Glenn Seaborg, while working on the Manhattan Project, had trouble isolating Americium and Curium (atomic numbers 95 and 96, respectively) and when assuming their chemical properties were similar to those of the d-block elements above them. He proposed that these elements, and others with similar atomic numbers, were part of an actinide series similar to the lanthanide series of rare earth metals that was previously known. Thus, the final modification to the traditional periodic table, the f-block, came about, leaving ample room for additional elements to be added such that their chemical properties can be easily predicted., circa 330 B.C.E. Aristotle popularizes a claim by Greek philosopher Empedocles that all material is derived from four main components: earth, water, air, and fire. These components are later named "elements" by Plato. Middle Ages Alchemy, the science that would eventually become modern chemistry, is defined by the search for the Philosopher's Stone. This material, also known as the Elixer of Life, was believed to be able to convert lead into gold and possibly grant immortality.